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From: Raimund KARL (a8700035@unet.univie.ac.at)
To: CELTIC-L@DANANN.HEA.IE
Subject: Celtic Religion - what information do we really have - Part
1-7
Date: Sun, 1 Dec 1996 10:54:40 - Tue, 10 Dec 1996 15:20:01
CELTIC RELIGION - WHAT INFORMATION DO WE REALLY HAVE
INTRODUCTION
To begin with, lets first look at the sources available to us: There are
quite numerous sources available, contrary to the usual belief that there
is almost nothing actually there.
First, there are the archaeological sources. These are the only direct
source for the prehistoric part of the religiion we are talking about.
The main elements we find here are sacred sites (being as well designed
cult centres with a certain layout like the "Viereckschanzen" are, as there
are "natural" places which were used to deposit offerings) and the findings
and objects that came down on us (including as well bog bodies as graves,
the objects found in ritual deposits and depictions of gods, most of which
are from the time of the Roman occupation but which still tell us something
about the Celtic religion)
Second, there are the epigraphic sources, i.e. inscriptions. Most of
those are from the time of the Roman occupation and as such their use is
partly limited, however, some are autochtonous and preroman (mainly such
from Southern Gaul and Spain).
Third, there are the historical sources from the diverse Roman authors.
Although these are often biased due to the author writing, his knowledge,
his political or other interests, the audience which he was targeting his
writings at and other influences as later interpolations, they give us
more or less first hand information (at least almost contemporary information).
Fourth, we have the Insular literature, including early British histories
(like those of Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth), sociopolitical geographies
like those of Giraldus Cambrensis as well as Irish and Welsh tales. These
sources are useable to get hints at how to reconstruct earlier religious
concepts as well as to how Celtic religion might have looked in the Celtic
countries not conquered by Rome during the first few centuries AD.
Fifth, we have the folk traditions in the countries which still are
"Celtic". Even though heavily christianised, many a "pagan" deity of belief
shows through these traditions, and as such these can be used to reconstruct
missing parts as well.
These sources can be analysed and are additionally added by results
of such fields as linguistics, comparative IE studies, comparative religious
studies and general history, which all help by providing explanational
possibilities and construction and development models and possibilities.
I will now start this look at pagan Celtic Religion with a survey of
what we know about what we would call "priestly" functions more or less.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RELIGIOUS FUNCTIONS
When thinking of Celtic religious functions, the first thing that comes
to ones mind is doubtlessly the "druid". In most of the literature, and
not only the popular but a good deal of the scientific one as well, "priest"
is equated with the term "druid" when talking about the Celts. However,
this is a gross simplification. There's definitly more to Celtic religious
functions.
DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS FUNCTIONS
To start with, definitly the term druid is, to a certain extent, also a
catchover term for all the Celtic religious functions, Caesar for instance
seems to use it in this kind in his excursus on the Gauls in his De Bello
Gallico, when he writes: (BG VI, 13-4) "To return to those two classes:
One of them is the class of the druids, the other one those of the knights.
The druids are concerned with the divine worship, the due process of sacrifices,
public and private, and in the interpretation of ritual questions ... In
fact, it is they who decide in almost all disputes, public and private
...".
On the other hand, the term druid is also used to describe a specific
religious function. We can at least identify one other religious function,
probably even more. For this, we can look at Strabo (IV, 4) quoting Poseidonius:
"Among all the tribes, generally speaking, there are three classes of men
held in special honor: the bards, the vates and the druids" (B/ardoi te
kai\ Oua/teis kai\ Drui/dai). This gives us at least the vates as a second
religious function, and it is possible that the bards are to be considered
as a religious function as well.
Additionally, it is worth noting that for all these three classes we
have equivalents in the Irish literature, where we find, additionally to
the druid (Ir. drui/ Gaul. *druids) the fai/th (greek oua/teis, Gaul. *vatis)
and the bard (greek ba/rdoi, Gaul. *bardos). Added to these in the function
of interpreter of "rectus" (law), which would, if we follow Caesar's description
above, as well fall into the "druidical" functions, would be the Gaulish
"vergobretus" (supreme magister), which contains the same root as the Irish
"breithem" (judge). Additionally there is the Irish "fili" (seer, poet,
priest), whichs gaulish cognate would be "*velits", a cognate of is attested
as a name for a Germanic seeres, "Veleda".
This now leaves us with the following terms: Druid, Vates, Vergobretus,
Bard, and perhaps fili.
Let us take a look at what their jobs were.
DRUID
The specialised function of the "druid" is described in Strabo IV, 4 as
the science of nature and moral philosophy (pro\s te physiologi/a kai\
ten ethiken philosophi/an). The term "druid" itself is probably derived
from IE *dru-uid- "highly wise" - which might be the reason for why it
was also used as a catchover term for all the religious functions.
The specialised functions may allow us to assume that the druids in
fact are the class who worked as medics and who were knowledgeable in herbal
lore as described by Pliny the Elder. A grave of such a "druid" we know
from the cemetery of Pottenbrunn, object 520, which contained the burial
of an adult male of the early La Te\ne Period, which carried, additionally
to the usual equipment, a medical instrument and a propellor-shaped bone
object of unknown function, which could be an item used in rituals.
VATES
The function of the vates is described by Strabo as "interpreters of sacrifices
and natural philosophers" (hieropoioi\ kai\ physiolo\goi). This fits quite
well with what we know of as the function of the Irish fa/ith, whose job
was to carry out the divinations. The description of Strabo allows us to
assume that also the vates were the diviners, and as such probably also
the calender of Coligny falls into their field of work (the Claender has
been interpreted as a solar/lunar predictor by Olmsted), so the vates would
be the ones who were the astrologers and mathematicians amongst the "priests"
VERGOBRETUS
We know little about the actual function of the Vergobretus, of whom we
only have one short notice in the ancient literary sources which only gives
us that title. However, as the term has the same root as the Irish breithem,
whose function we know was judging in lawcases, we may assume that the
Vergobretus was a similar function. As Caesar reckons the judging in lawcases
to the druidical functions it can be assumed that it was a "religious"
function as well.
BARD
Not much has to be said about the bards. Strabo (IV, 4) describes them
as "singers and poets" (hymnetai\ kai\ poietai\), which fits quite well
with what we know about the Irish bards. As a possible etymology for *bardos
could be derived from the IE root *gur-d(h)o-s which is translated as "Praise
Giver" this function could have been religious as well.
WHAT ELSE WE KNOW
Well, actually not much. We do not know which of the above if any carried
out which of the rituals we know or can guess at. However, we know that,
according to Caesar (BG VI, 14-2), "Many young men assemble of their own
motion to receive their training; many are sent by parents and relatives.
Report says that in the schools of the druids they learn by heart a great
number of verses, and therefore some persons remain twenty years under
training.". Additionally, as well according to Caesar (VI, 13 and 14),
they usually do not participate in wars, they don't have to pay taxes,
they elect for lifetime one out of their midst to be chief druid (more
or less the druid pope), a position which is very honorable and therefore
sometimes it is, if no decision can be found, even fought about with weapons.
CELTIC GODS
One of the most often cited statements about Celtic gods is that we have
over 300 of their names that came down on us, while we know actually almost
nothing about their functions. With this statement, usually the idea is
transferred that the Celts had an unbelieveable large pantheon which consisted
mainly of local gods and demigods, with only a few if at all gods in common.
However, this is probably a misinterpretation due to lack of knowledge.
THE SYSTEM OF THE CELTIC
PANTHEON
A number of differing theories have been issued about how the Celtic (and,
most often the common IE pantheon) might have been structured. The main
theories follow the Dumezilian system, which postulates a tripartite structure
where one part of the gods is the "warriors", one the "agroculturalists",
and one the craftsmens" gods as the common system behind the IE panthei.
However, this system has been often questioned. One of the most interesting
new interpretations is the theory lately issued by Garrett Olmsted (The
Gods of the Celts and the Indoeuropeans, Archaeolingua vol.6, Budapest
1994). He keeps the tripartite system, but offers a new interpretation
of the functions of the gods of the different parts in assigning them to
three mythical "realms" which he, for simplicity, calls Upper, Middle and
Lower Realm (which is probably best visible in the Norse mythologies with
Asgard, Midgard and Niflheim as Upper, Middle and Lower Realm and in the
Vedic System which says that 11 gods dwell in the heavens, 11 on earth
and 11 in the water), which however could be called Sky, Earth and Water.
A good hint at such a system could be found in the diverse kinds of offerings
used by the Celts: Cremation as sacrifices to the Upper Realm gods, Burying
in the Earth as sacrifices to the gods of the Middle Realm and Deposition
in Water as sacrifices to the Lower Realm gods.
THE NAMES OF THE CELTIC GODS
Well, I already mentioned that we have over threehundred names for Celtic
gods. Lugos, Toutatis, Taranis, Cernunnos, Esus, Sequana, Brigantia, Epona,
Matrona, Noreia, Eriu, Govannon, Belenos, Mabon and so on. It has been,
for a long time, considered that the Celtic pantheon was regionally split
up, that Noreia was a tribal godess for the Norici, Sequana a tribal godess
for the Sequani, Eriu a tribal godess for the Erenn. This also seems to
be true, but only to a certain extent. As far as we can say by now, the
Celtic gods had a lot of variants, the most we can find here are local
but it is also possible that some were functional. This is nothing surprising
in fact, if we look at other IE pantheons we find that most gods in most
pantheons have numerous, local and functional, bynames and names. The Greek
god Zeus had multiple names, as is true for all the other greek gods. Iuppiter
is also known to us as Dispater, and under numerous other names. The Hindu
gods all have multiple names. The same is true for the Germanic gods. And
if we look at the gallo-roman inscription in which most of the Celtic god
names have been brought down to us we find, not really surprising, that
Mars is mentioned with over 50 Celtic godnames, as Mars Toutatis, Mars
Ambiorix and others, while Apollo is going along with Grannos, Belenos
and others, while Taranis and others are atrributed to Iuppiter.
Given this, it is most likely that the names of the Celtic gods that
came down on us, are, for the most part, the local and/or functional bynames
of gods whose "real" names probably were kept secret or which blend in
with the bynames. Only two gods can be identified almost everywhere, being
the god Lugos (Irish Lugh, Welsh Llew), whose name we find from Spain to
Germany and probably even further east, and the mother godess (matrona),
of which we know her functional name, i.e. mother, (old Gaulish matrona,
Welsh Modron), and to which a number of the female names we have can be
atrributed (Sequana, Noreia, Brigantia and probably as well Eriu and Boand,
and additionally we have some "mothergodesses of places" like the Matronae
Lugdunensis or the Matronae Treverorum).
GODS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Now lets take a look at the more important godly functions
THE SKY FATHER
More or less, the Skyfather is the god we are used to refer to as "the
head of the pantheon". This god is probably derived from a common IE god
named *Dieus-pater, translated as "Skyfather" - and is quite easily detectable
in Greek Zeus Pater, Iuppiters byname Dispater and the the Vedic Dyauspita.
In the Celtic World this function is most probably fulfilled by the Ollathair
(Great father), the Dagda, whereby the Ollathair seems to be a reminiscent
of the *Dieus-pater, although its best cognate is found in the Germanic
Odin "Alfodr".
The function of this god is that he is, usually, the progenitor of
all other gods together with the Earth Mother.
Depending on the religion this god is also the head of the pantheon,
or at least his father or grandfather and often also the god of thunder
and lightning. It seems that this deity is the Dagda in the Irish mythology,
while Gaulish mythology he seems to have been called Taranis ("the Thunderer,
a cognate term to the Germanic Thorr from the IE root *tn-ro-s).
THE CONTROLLER
OF THE LOWER REALM AND HIS CONSORT
This god usually is the one who is in charge of the otherworld and/or who
is ferrying the dead to there. The Gaulish name for this god is "Sucellos"
(the good striker), and he is equalled by Greek, Etruscan and Roman Charon.
He is usually depicted with a great hammer and a dog by his side, and has
a consort called Nantosuelta (either translated as "sun-warmed valley",
or as "who makes the valley bloom", the second being suggestive of the
Irish Bla/thnat, probably meaning "Little flower", and Welsh Blodeued "Flower-faced").
We also see here a close parallel to the consort of Hades, Persephone.
The dog which resides beside Sucellos usually could be an equivalent to
the Greek Cerberos, the Hell-Hound. Equivalents in the Irish legend can
be found in the Relationship between Curoi Mac Daire and Blathnath (Cu
Roi actually meaning "Hound of the Plain"), especially given the fact that
Curoi also appears as the churl in the beheading game in the quarrel about
the heroe's portion in Fled Bricrenn, parallels can also be found in the
Welsh Mabinogi in the story about Llew and Blodeued. The apparent similarity
of Arawn from Annwn with his beautiful wife and his red-eared dogs to the
position of Sucellos is also worth a note.
DAYTIME AND
NIGHTTIME CONTROLLER OF THE UPPER REALM
The upper realm control seems to have been split to be fulfilled by two
gods, characteristically one of them is One-eyed, the other one-handed.
This is true for Vedic Va/runah and Mitra/h as well as for the Germaic
pair Odin and Tyr.
The Celtic equivalents for those gods are quite apparent. If we look
at Cath Maige Tuired, one of the most important texts for Irish mythology,
we see Lugh, the one skilled in all arts, as closing one eye while cursing
the enemy Fomorians, and the equaling of Lugh with Gaulish Lugh is not
only apparent but unavoidable, as Caesar tells us that the Gauls credited
Mercurius (whith which Lugos is equated by the Romans) with the invention
of all arts. As Lugh`s name is probably derived from a Celtic root *lug
with the meaning "burn, enflame", we can possibly see the daytime Upper
realm controler in him. If we add to this the festival of Lughnasad we
could assume that he was also the controller of the summer half of the
year. His mythical twin, the one who was the ruler before Lugh, is in Cath
Maige Tuired the (formerly) onehanded Nuadu, which we have equalled in
the British deity Nodens. In the Gaulish Context this deity seems to have
been identified both with Mercurius and Mars by the Romans, thus being
more or less the "kings god" and the "god of the tribe". Here we probably
would have to set most of the Mars-connected gods like Toutatis, Vellaunos.
THE YOUTHFUL-SAVIOUR-CHAMPION
Another function is the one of the youthful-saviour-champion. This role
is fulfilled by Cuchullin in the Irish texts, and mixes to a certain extent
with the function of the Nighttime Upper Relam controller. This god is
the warrior champion of the tribe, probably also the god to whom the diverse
known Celtic warrior bands (like the Gaesates) would pray. He is the one
who protects the cattle of the tribe, the one who goes into battle frenzy,
who fights naked. His Gaulish equivalent probably would be Esus.
EARTH MOTHER
The Earth mother (surprise, she actually exists in Celtic mythology). It
is usually this godess which was, together with the Sky father, parent
of all the other gods. This godess appears as a separate godess in some
IE pantheons (for instance Gaia in the greek mythology), but also can meld
with other female godesses, most often with the female Upper Realm godess.
In the Irish mythology s separate Earthmother figure seems to be preserved
in the figure of Danu and Tailtiu.
She was usually also the mother of three godesses associated with rivers
or springs which are the female godesses of the Upper, Middle and Lower
realm.
THE GODESS OF THE LOWER REALM
The godess of the Lower Realm seems to have had a cowlike nature. It was
probably called *Guououinda "White cow" (from IE *guou- + *uind-), *Matrona
"Mother" (from IE *mater) or *Mororegni "Great Queen" (from IE *moro- +
*regni-) She was also capable of shifting her form to an eel, snake, serpent
or wolf, more or less the animal godess. Additionally, she seems to be
one of the aspects of the "godess of sovereignity". Her Gaulish names seem
to have been S(t)irona "Heifer", Damona "Cow", but also Brigantia "the
High, the exalted pure one", Rigana "the Queen", Matrona "mother", but
also Sequana "the Flowing" and Bovinda "white Cow". Her Irish equivalents
are for instance Boand (the Irish form of Bovinda), Brigit (equivalent
of Brigantia) and Mo/rri/gan (the Irish version of Rigana). Her Welsh equivalent
is Mordron (the mother).
Through intercourse with the skyfather this godess begets a god named
"son", who later marries his aunt, the godess of the middle realm. This
son is the Gaulish *Maponos "Son", in Welsh this is his cognate *Mabon
"Son", and, as expected, Boand is the mother of the Irish Mac ind O/c "young
Son". This god seems to be assoviated with fire.
THE GODESS OF THE MIDDLE REALM
The godess of the middle Realm apparently had the byname *Medhua "Intoxicatress"
(from IE *medhu-). She seems to appear human in form, and definitly is
also part of the "godess of sovereignity". Her Gaulish name probably was
*Meduana "Intoxicatress" or *Comedova (same meaning), and possibly also
*Aveda "the flowing (Water)" Her Irish form is known as Medb or Aife (one
of Mebd's bynames).
This godess also has a son with the skyfather, called *nepots "Nephew"
(alternatives *Nepotulos, *Neptionos) or *Nebhtunos "God of Waters", or
Irish Nechtain-Freach (the son of Medb), who later marries his Aunt, the
Lower Realm godess (as Nechtain does with Boand). This god seems to be
associated with water.
THE GODESS OF THE UPPER REALM
This godess is usually depicted as a horse. Her Gaulish name is Epona "Horse
Godess" (from IE *ekuo-na), but she has as her bynames also the names *Rigana
"Queen" (See also above for the Lower Realm godess) and possibly some others
like ?Catona? "Battle Godess" and ?Imona? "Swift One". Her Irish equivalent
is Macha (which is also called Rigana "Queen"and Roech "Great Horse", essentially
a cognate of Epona). The byname ?Imona? of Epona could also explain the
name Emain Macha, as ?Imona? is cognate with Emain (from *Imonis). Her
Welsh equivalent is Rhiannon "Queen" (from *Riganona).
The name Macha may also indicate that here we have a melding of the
Earth godess with the Upper Realm godess (see Latin *Maia "the Great, the
Mother but also Sanskrit *Mahi "the Earth").
This godess as well is part of the "Godess of Sovereignity".
A FEW THOUGHTS
ON THE "GODESS OF SOVEREIGNITY"
As we have seen above, all those four godesses are very interwoven in their
functions. In fact, it is questionable if they are to be considered as
separate godesses at all, or if they are not all only aspects of the Earth
Mother/Godess of Sovereignity complex. Simply said, this is not decideable
at the moment. It is also possible that due to the very scarce evidence
and a constant intermixture, these godesses became, even though separate
godesses, mixed to a certain extent by the Celts themselves.
THE GOD OF THE TREE FRUIT
This god is depicted as a bull. It is a twin god as far we can say, who
has a white and a black form. The two twins seem to be fighting each other,
starting out as humans and going through a series of shapechanges until
finally, when both are bulls, the dark one rips the white one apart besides
a sea. Its gaulish names are Tarvos Trigaranus "Bull with three cranes",
Tarvos "Bull" or Donnotaurus "Black bull", the last one being a cognate
of Donn Tarbh, another name for the Donn Cuailnge, who fights the Finnbenach
"White horned one" in one of the preludes rto the Tain, also going through
the shapechanges. In this, this figure fits with the Avestan Tistrya and
Apaosa and, more perfectly even, with the Greek Zagre/ous-Dio/nysos.
THE GODESS OF WAR
Well know as a triplicate godess from Irish mythology in the forms of Mo/rri/gan
"Great Queen", Nemain "Battle Frenzy" and Babd "Crow". These three godesses
are also refered to as the tres Mo/rri/gna "The three Great Queens", therefore
the Mo/rri/gan may not be identical with the Lower Realm godess, but also
these might be three other aspects of the tripartite godess/three godesses
that are responsible for the respective realms. The three battle godesses
can shift into the form of a raven.
At least the Babd, who is also referred to as Babd catha "Battlecrow",
also in this form has a cognate in Gaulish gods names in [C]athubodva.
THE GOD OF ORATORY
- THE CELTIC HERCULES
Apparently there existed a god in Gaul named Ogmios who was equated with
the Roman Hercules as statet in Lucianus's Dialogi Deorum (Hercules 1,7).
This god is cognate with the Irish Ogma mac Elathan of the Tu/atha De/
Danann in Cath Maige Tuired, who is refered to as the champion of the TD
and credited with the invention of the Ogam alphabet. He seems to have
functioned as a god of oratory as well, Gaulish coins depict his audience
as tied by silver chains to him which connect his tongue with their ears.
DEA LOCI - GODESS OF A PLACE
Additionally there existed godesses which were "place-specific" in that
they were seen as protectoresses and/or mothers of certain places. They
are considered to fall in the group of Gaulish Matres, Matrones. We know
such godesses for instance for *Genava (todays Geneva in Switzerland),
Vienna (todays French Vienne) and numerous other places. A function of
the Irish Macha in that kind for Emain Macha is also likely.
SPRING "NYMPHS" - GODESSES
OF SPRINGS
There also exist numerous godesses responsible for springs. We know of
an *Acionna "?Water Godess?", *Arvolcia "the very Wet", *Cobba "Prosperity"
and others. Equal functions were probably fulfilled by the godesses after
which rivers were named like the Sequana, Matrona, Boand. We know for instance
that at the spring of the Sequana offerings were made to that godess.
WOOD "NYMPHS" - GODESSES
OF THE LANDS
Equal to spring godesses we also know of godesses which were attributed
to certain parts of the countryside. For instance we know of a godess *Ardbenna
"Godess of the Ardbenna, the High Hills", whichs name still is clinging
to the Ardennes forest on the German/French border and similar.
THE GENII - LESSER GODS
/ SPIRITS
The last type I'll be mentioning here are the socalled Genii, sometimes
also know as Genii cucullati "Hooded Spirits" which could have had numerous
functions. We know of Genii of the "Neighbourhood", Gaul. *Contrebis which
is probably cognate with Irish contreb "community", Genii of the family,
Gaul. *Vinotonos from the Celtic stems *veni- "family" and the cognate
of Irish tonn "wave, surface, land, earth, skin" as well as placename genii
like Artio "god of the Bear (forest)", *Alisanos "god of Alesia", *Brixantus
"god of Brixantion", but also for tribes or their subunits like *Allobrox
"God of the Allobroges, *Menapos "God of the Menapii".
SACRED PLACES
Basically, we can discern two kinds of places "sacred" to the Celts. First,
we have the natural sacred places and, second, the artificial sacred places
(called "sacred monuments" from now on).
NATURAL SACRED PLACES
It is obvious from diverse archaeological findings and finds that a number
of natural places had a sacred character to the Celts. Noteworthy is here,
that basically all those places have an aspect of liminality.
SACRED PLACES IN CONNECTION
TO WATER
The kind of sacred place most often used by the Celts (at least seemingly),
is one that has something to do with water.
SACRED SPRINGS
The first kind of sacred places connected to water, and probably also one
of the more important ones, are springs. As we have already seen while
dealing with the gods, we know quite a great number of Celtic "spring nymphs".
This is mirrored by archaeological finds in springs. Some of the most important
Celtic hoards have been found in such a situation, like the spring find
from Duchcov, Chech Republic, in the springs of the Seine (the Gaulish
Sequana), but also in the springs of Roman Aquae Sulis, tody Bath in England.
In many cases, these are springs that have curative powers, and in the
cases of the springs of the Seine and Bath it is also visible from the
archaeological finds that the curative power of the spring and its related
god/godess were consciously sought. In the Seine springs, for exaple, there
have been found numerous models of human body parts from various materials,
which can be interpreted as offerings to the godess Sequana who should
cure the depicted body part.
This function of springs or wells is also hinted at in Cath Maige Tuired
(123), where the Physician of the TD heals the wounded in a well, upon
which he together with his two sons and his Daughter has chanted spells
and in which he had cast all herbs to be found in Ireland.
SACRED LAKES
That lakes were places where contact to the "otherworld" was possible is
well known from a lot of the epics. That some of them were considered as
sacred places as well is also deductable from archaeological findings like
the famous Lynn Cerrig Bach hoard, where a lot of items had been cast into
the lake. An equal interpretation has also been brought forth for the namegiving
site of the La Te\ne Culture, La Te\ne at lake Newchatel, Switzerland,
even though lately this has been questioned due to another finding at the
point where the Ziehl (a river) flows out of the lake Neuchatel, where
obviously a bridge was destroyed during a flood catastrophe while a lot
of persons where on it, si the La Te\ne finds could have come into the
lake for the same reasons.
SACRED RIVERS
That rivers had a certain sacred aspect is obvious from the fact that a
good number of them take their names from Celtic gods, be it the Sequana,
the Matrona, the Boyne or the Danube. Hints from archaeology towards offerings
can be deducted from isolated findings of prominent standing, like the
Battersea shield, that was recovered from the Thames river.
SACRED BOGS
That also boglands could have had "sacred" aspects is also likely. A hint
to this can be found in the finding of Lindow man, a bog body discovered
in Lindow Moss, England, of a man in his midtwenties that was killed in
a threefold manner (the kind of death also ascribed to some of the more
famous British magicians/poets/druids like the Southern Scottish Lailoken
or Merlin).
SACRED PLACES IN
CONNECTION TO THE EARTH
We know little of sacred places that have to do with the earth, but that
such existed are likely. It is, however, hard to decide in this case if
these were natural "sacred places", as offerings at such places would probably
have to have been interred in the earth, which wouldn't happen naturally
but had to be done artificially, most probably. However, a number of isolated
hoards that were found in the open countryside, like the Snettisham hoard
(more or less a connection of gold torcs), or hoards at the edges of settled
territory as they are known from Bohemia, for instance, could be interpreted
as such offerings.
An equal interpretation is possible forsome skeletal finds (most often
of females) in the gate area of some of the oppida, the fortified sites
of (mainly) late La Te\ne dating. These skeletons are usually found below
the walls in the gate areas and look very much like human sacrifices to
protect the gate.
Probably also the sacred grooves of the Druids, the socalled Nemeton
or Drunemeton as related to us by the ancient authors, fall into this category.
SACRED
PLACES IN CONNECTION TO SKY (OR EARTH, TOO)
The last group of natural sacred places are those which are most probably
connected to the Sky (even though a connection to the Earth is also possible).
Into this category fall sites like the Pass Lueg, Austria, on which a Celtic
Helmet (one of the most famous ones as it is the one depicted on the Gauloise
cigarette packs) was found, or maybe also the hoard of Erstfeld, Switzerland,
which is at the foot of the Great St.Gotthard pass over the alps. These
places could have been, like Greek Mount Olympus, been connected to the
skies (due to their relativly high altitude), something which could equally
be true of such remenants like the "Vierbergewallfahrt" (four mountain
pilgrimage) in Carithia, Austria, or the Croagh Patrick tour.
SACRED MONUMENTS
The second group of sacred places are the sacred monuments. Here we can
also distinguish between some different groups.
ANCIENT MONUMENTS
That ancient monuments were considered sacred places is beyond any doubt
from the Irish and Welsh tales. One only has to think of the Beliefs connected
to places like Newgrange (Brug na Boinne). A hint towards a similar belief
of the ancient Celts can be found at the site of the huge tumulus of Hochmichele,
Germany, where a Viereckschanze (see below) was erected directly besides
the late Hallstatt tumulus.
VIERECKSCHANZEN
The second type of sacred monuments are the socalled "Viereckschanzen".
These are roughly rectangular wall and ditch constructions that appear
in the La Te\ne period from middle France to Eastern Austria, covering
more or less whole of the celtral Celtic area. Inside of these rectangular
wall and ditch enclosures, which also quite often had elaborate gate constructions,
there often appear deep pits which in some cases still contained wooden
statues of "gods" and a number of offerings. Equal pits, but without the
surrounding wall and ditch constructions, have also been found on the British
isles. Sometimes also small houses appear inside these Viereckschanzen,
which in some cases appear to be the precedessors of later Gallo-Roman
temples.
TEMPLES INSIDE OF OPPIDA
Still another type of sacred monuments, even though connected to the above
group, are the temples that have on occasion been found in oppida, like
in Manching.
GRAVES
It is also likely that the graves were considered to be sacred places.
In some areas of ancient Celtic culture the graves were surrounded by fences,
which makes them in some sort similar to Viereckschanzen. Even though sacred,
these graves have still been often enough robbed by graverobbers only a
few years after the burial. This may be explained by simple materialism
(a lot of the gravegoods probably had quite some worth), but could also
be interpreted as raids on the otherworld as we know them from the Irish
and British tales.
OTHER SACRED MONUMENTS
It is quite possible that there existed other sacred monuments as well.
For instance it is quite likely from the Irish tradition that places like
Emain Macha, Tailtiu, Cruachan and Tara were such sacred places. Although
most of them also fall in the category of ancient monuments it is possible
that there were also some permanent residents at such sites, in contrast
to other "ancient monuments" like in Newgrange.
RITUALS
On rituals that were performed in Celtic Religion only very little information
has come down on us. However, we can still guess at a few of those. Basically,
we can discern between some different groups of rituals. First, there are
rituals performed at the seasonal feasts. Then we know a little bit about
transmigrational rituals (rituals falling into the field of changes in
ones life - often also called initiation rites, which only incompletely
describes this group as the death rituals have to be included in this field).
Third, we know of some divinatory rituals. Fourth, we know of some rituals
falling in the field of curative processes, i.e. the healing of wounds
or illnesses. Firth, we know about some "magical" rituals. Finally, we
have hints to some rituals which can't be put into any of those fields.
SEASONAL RITUALS
We know basically of four great seasonal feast that were part of the Celtic
Yearcycle (I will not go into detail as to how these were situated in the
year in ancient Celtic times, look for this at analyses of the Calendar
of Coligny - which I perhaps will treat separatly at some time), namely
(starting with the beginning of the year) Samhain, in the current calendarical
system fixed to the first of November, Imbolc (today 1st or 2nd of February),
Beltane (today 1st of May) and Lughnasad (in August, usually equated with
Lammas). We can be certain that rituals took place at those feasts, however,
we know only very little about them.
SAMHAIN RITUALS
Samhain is the "Celtic new Year". Rituals performed on this day (or these
days) probably were protectional (as the barrier to the otherworld was
thin at that time) ones, and probably such remembering the dead. This feast
is known already from ancient Celtic times, where it is called "trinoux
Samonis" or "tritinoux Samonis", more or less translateable as "the three
nights of Summer", probably not meaning that they took place in summer
but denoting the final three nights of summer.
IMBOLC RITUALS
We know almost nothing about Imbolc rituals. The only hint is that it is
also called Eumelc (first milking, more or less), so it probably included
rituals which had to do something with milk.
BELTANE RITUALS
Well, there's also not much known about Beltane Rituals. The feast had
to do something with fire (its translation is "Fire of Bel", Belenos being
one of the Gaulish gods associated with Apollo which is probably a variant
of the "Son of the Mother" god, the son of the Lower Realm godess who was
associated with fire), there are hints that it also existed already in
Gaul.
One of the rituals we know of taking place at that feast was that the
animals, especially the cows seemingly, were droven between two fires.
Probably this was a purification ritual, and rituals associated with fire
which exist in some parts of Europe may be remeniscant of Celtic rituals.
(Like the burning wheels who are run down a hill in a village in Germany
on the 1st of May).
LUGHNASAD RITUALS
Lughnasad is also only attested for Ireland. It was a harvest feast probably,
the rituals carried out at this feast probably centering about the marriage
between the Earth godess and Lugh (See the feast of Tailtiu) with a lot
of contests of skill and strength, probably.
TRANSMIGRATIONAL RITUALS
The next big group of rituals are the transmigrational rituals. We know
little of them, but we can guess at the existence of some, starting with
the ritual of namegiving, over various initiation rites until adulthood
was reached, the inauguration rites to kingship also fall into this category,
and finally the death rites are a part of this complex.
THE NAMEGIVING
From various sources we can guess that a ritual existed with which the
child was accepted into the community of "humans" more or less.
This can be seen in the Mabinogi for instance, where the mother of
Llew has to be tricked into giving him a name and only then (and after
three other "initiations" he is considered to be a man), but also in the
fact that we do not find babies in Celtic graveyards usually. The youngest
individuals to be found in Celtic graveyard usually are no younger that
3 to four years, approximatly the time when they start to speak.
OTHER CHILDHOOD
TRANSMIGRATIONAL RITUALS
What else can be guessed from the Mabinogi text is that there were still
some other initiation rituals until one could be considered adult. We only
have hints at such rituals for males, but it is likely that they also existed
in similar kind for females. What these other initiations are for the male
nobles (as Llew is) is obviously the initiations to weapons (which is paralleled
in the boyhood deeds of Cuchullin) and that he gets a wife (also paralleled
in the Cuchullin tales where Cuchullin is not allowed to marry Emer until
he hasn't had special training "initiation" with the famous Scathach -
in course of this initiation, however, he is primarily sexually initiated
- see also that his son stems from this episode).
RITUALS TO BE
ACCEPTED INTO A WARRIOR-BAND
At these rituals can be glimpsed from the Finn saga. Here, acceptance into
the Fianna requires the applicant to succeed in a test which has many ritualistic
elements. As such "warrior-bands" like the Fianna are also likely to have
existed in ancient Gaul (see to this the Gaesates), equal rituals probably
existed to be accepted into these bands.
INITIATION TO KINGSHIP RITUAL
On this matter we probably have the best information of all the rituals
existing in Celtic religion. However, these rituals seem to vary from place
to place and in time. What is told to us about the inauguration ceremony
in Ancient Gaul is that the king to be is lifted, standing on his shield,
by his followers. The rituals connected to the kingship in Tara, however,
require the king to be to sleep with the sovereignity godess (according
to Giraldus Cambrensis who claims to have seen such a ceremony in Connacht
this means the king makes sex with a white mare, which is slaughtered,
its blood and flesh are put into a large vat in which the king to be bathes,
which is then cooked and then eaten by the people who are at the ceremony)
and has to fulfill a test by stepping onto the Lia Fail. In the kingdom
of Dalriada the ceremony probaly included the king setting his foot into
a "footprint" and some other ceremonies as well.
DEATH RITUALS
Besides of the actual deposition of the dead body (be it inhumation, cremation
or whatever method else), there were some rituals which we can grasp from
archaeology that were connected to death. These included in almost any
cases a big feast in the area of the graveyard, of which sometimes still
diverse animal bones can be located in the grave area, including a piece
of meat and a container with drink (most often probably beer or similar,
but in some cases wine, especially for richer dead). Additionally there
were put into the grave other gravegoods as well, most probably also pointing
at a ritual process in which the items were put into the grave. This is
especially visible in some areas of Celtic settlement in certain time periods,
where the items put into the grave with the dead body are intentionally
destroyed (often called "ritually killed").
DIVINATORY RITUALS
Another large group of rituals we know of as used by the Celts are Divinatory
rituals. Most of them are no longer reconstructable, all we know is that
the druids were able to predict the future from birdflight and similar
things.
SACRIFICES RITUALS
It is noted in historical sources that the druids could predict the future
from sacrifices. To do this, they would kill an animal, or in cases of
high importance also humans, and predict from their death-throws.
BULL-SLEEP ("TARB FESS")
Another divinatory ritual known to us is the socalled Bull-sleep, in Irish
"Tarb Fess". In this ritual the faith (Gaul. vates) overeats himself with
the meat of a freshly killed bull (usually with yellow skin) and then lays
down to sleep on the hide of that same bull. During the sleep he then has
a prophetic dream.
CURATIVE RITUALS
Curative Rituals known to us have already been shortly mentioned in connection
to sacred springs. Obviously, the Celts attributed high curative powers
(even the power of rebirth) to the water. Hints to this we find in the
already quoted passage in Cath Maige Tuired as well as in items like the
"cauldron of rebirth" (the Grail of the Arthurian tradition), as archaeology
gives us hints in the findings of models of body parts in the springs of
the Seine. Obviously, Rituals like immersion in "sacred" water and the
offering of equivalent models if the injured body parts was used as a curative
ritual (although we also know of surgery made by the Celts, up to the surgical
opening of the skull, i.e. trepanation).
We also know a "curative" incantation as allegedly used by Miach, the
son of Dian Cecht, to heal the severed Arm of Nuada, the king of the TD.
It goes: "joint to joint of it, and sinew to sinew" (Cath Maige Tuired
33).
MAGICAL RITUALS
The last great group of rituals are what I will call "magical" rituals
here, because I know no better term for it. Suggestions are, however, welcome.
COLLECTION OF PLANTS RITUALS
The first kind of ritual in this group is described to us by Pliny the
elder in his historia naturalis, where he is also speaking about curative
plants used by the Druids and how they are aqquired. This is the source
wherefrom the famous Mistletoe story stems, and from which is usually deducted
that the Druids wore white clothing (which I personally very much doubt).
Pliny discribes how the druid puts the right arm through the left sleeve
of his clothing and cuts, with a golden sickle, the mistletoe, which is
caught in a white cloth. He describes rituals to collect some other plants
as well, which include jumping on one leg around it in the lefthand direction.
BLESSINGS AND CURSES
Also falling in this group of rituals are the blessings and curses. Usually,
they invoke a god to do something to somebody else, and are usually engraved
into permanent material that is deponated somewhere (for instance lead
plates). There are some quite nice curses on them in fact.
OTHER RITUALS
Finally, I take a look at some rituals which cannot be put into the above
groups (at least not very well).
THE TEMPLE UNROOFING RITUAL
From the druidesses of one of the French channel islands we know of a yearly
ritual, in which they unroofed their whole temple and then set up a new
roof in one day. If one of the druidesses let fall what she carried of
the roof, so it is said, she would be torn to pieces by the others. In
fact, seemingly, the druidesses tried to make each other (or maybe also
one of them that was choosen to previously) let fall pieces of the roof.
GENERAL SACRIFICES
In many of the sacred places we know of depositions of items, which have
to be called "ritual depositions". During their deposition definitly rituals
were carried out, in some cases also including intentional destruction
of the sacrificed items.
HUMAN SACRIFICES
AND THE THREEFOLD DEATH
Finally I come to the human sacrifices. These (as already seen in the Temple
Unroofing Ritual, which seems to include such a human sacrifice), definitly
also had ritualistic components. We do not know much of them, but we have
at least one such ritual that can be reconstructed, the socalled "threefold
death". This means that the victim dies of three reasons at the same time.
In the archaeological material we can see this in case of Lindow man, the
bog body from Lindow moss in England, which was killed in such a ritual.
As far as it can be recostructed, Lindow man had been hit in the head (with
probably an axe), however, not strong enough to let him instantly die.
He was strangled with a Garotte, however, only as far as this would not
have caused instant death. After these two "killings", he was thrown in
a pool in Lindow moss, face downwards and unconscious, probably, so that
he as well drowned. So he died a "threefold death".
Similar deaths through three simultaneous reasons are for instance
also told about Merlin, and about the Southern Scottish "wise man"/bard/druid
Lailoken, who allegedly fell off a cliff onto a spike standing out of a
river, coming with his head under water so that he died from the fall,
from the spike and from drowning. This connection has led to the assumption
by some scholars that in case of Lindow man we might have found a "Druid
prince".
It is also noteworthy that this threefold death could be interpreted
as a death in all "Realms" as described for the gods. The Upper Realm (the
skies/air) is found in the fall of Lailoken and in the strangualtion of
Lindow man, the Middle Realm (the Earth) is found in the spike on which
Lailoken lands and the axewound of Lindow man, and the Lower Realm (the
Waters) are quite obvious.
HEADHUNTING
This practice is numerously attested by the ancient historians, the Irish
tales and hints towards it can be found in archgaeology as well. It definitly
had a ritual meaning.
CELTIC RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
We know very little about the actual beliefs that were a part of Celtic
Religion. Those very few hints we have are also not overly conclusive,
but I'll try to say as much as is possible.
BELIEFS IN CONNECTION TO
CHILDREN
We know only very little about the beliefs connected to children. What
we can definitly say is that children were not considered to be "real human
beings" up to a certain age, probably up to the age of 2-3, approximatly
the time when the child is starting to speak in consistent sentences. We
have no children in the graveyards that are below this age, but we find
them quite frequently in the settlements. Connected to this "becoming a
human" seems to be the giving of a name to the child, as indicated in the
4th branch of the Mabinogi.
After this, however, the children appear frequently in the graveyards
and are often adorned with that much jewellery that they probably had looked
like chrismas trees when they were buried. Much of this jewellery is supposed
to be of apotropaic (protective) function, to ward off evil spirits to
which the children seemingly were thought of as being more likely to fall.
Apart from this we know little. We may safely assume that the passage
from childhood to adulthood was connected with some beliefs, possibly also
initiation rituals, but we know nothing about those but that they existed.
The only other belief (though this as well may have been a secular
belief) that we know of is that it was seen as a bad omen if a father was
seen together with his son who was not already in the age of carrying weapons
(according to Caesar). This might indicate a religious background for a
system similar to the fosterage system known from the Irish, which also
finds its remenants in the upbringing of Lugh by Tailltiu in the Irish
mythological cycle.
APOTROPAIC (PROTECTIVE) BELIEFS
We can be quite sure that there existed apotropaic beliefs. This is not
only indicated by the frequent "amulets" found in childrens but also adults
graves, but also in the way in which much of the jewellery and weaponry
was decorated. The images of animals and also human faces (in the typical
abstracted Celtic art style) can be seen as "protective" symbols to ward
off evil spirits.
That other similar beliefs existed is also confirmed by a passage in
the Tain Bo Cuailgne, where we hear that it was geas (prohibition) to the
Ulaid to drive with a chariot on a day where there already had occured
technical problems with it (like the breaking of a wheel or similar).
Also interpretable as apotropaic beliefs are the rituals described
by Pliny the Elder for the Druids when collecting certain plants.
CALENDARICAL BELIEFS
What we know about calendrical beliefs is probably the best documented
part of the beliefs (in form of the calendar of Coligny). We can be sure
that in ancient Celtic Religion the year was divided in two main parts,
the Winter half (starting with Samhain) and the Summer half (starting with
Beltane) (although some theories want to set Samhain in the middle of the
summer half, but that is probably nonsense). The other two great feasts
(Imbolc and Lughnasad), if they at all existed in ancient Celtic Religion,
seem to mark the respective middle of the respective halves. Seemingly,
the Summer and Winter half fought with one another (in form of a white
and a black bull, probably, but possibly also in the form of some gods,
look for this in the first branch of the Mabinogi where the enemy of Arawn
of Annwn is called Hafgan [i.e. "Summer king" more or less]).
Additionally we know that the months and days had a "lucky" and "unlucky"
quality (Gaul. *matos=good, *anmatos=ungood, bad). The Gaulish calendar
divided the year into 12 months more or less with 29 and 30 days respectivly
(and a month to make up for the lost days every five years), of which the
29 day months were considered "anmatos" and the 30 day ones were considered
"matos". There were, however "matos" days in "anmatos" months and vice
versa. What exactly this lucky/unlucky connotation meant, and what result
it had on actions taken is not clear, but we can be sure that such a belief
existed.
Such a belief is also found in one of the episodes to the Tain, where
Cathbad, when asked what this day is good for by Ness, mother of Conchobor,
he replies with: For begetting a king on a queen
THE SPIRITS OF NATURE
That a belief in spirits of nature existed in Celtic Religion is relativly
sure. The rituals used by the Druids to collect plants as described by
Pliny the Elder can, as well as containing apotropaic elements, be seen
as magic used to cheat the spirits of the plants collected (for instance
putting the right arm, which is the "dangerous" one, through the left sleeve
can be seen as a trick to make the plant believe it is safe until it is
too late). Partly, these nature spirits may have become the small folk
of the Irish legends.
If believes in such spirits influenced the daily routine in any way
we do not know.
BELIEFS CONNECTED TO HEALING
We know little about the beliefs connected to healing but that it was performed
by the druids. Seemingly, there were multiple possibilities like making
offerings to spring godesses like we know from the springs of the Sequana,
then there is the possibility that there were beliefs of dogs licking wounds
(as indicated by the British god Nodens, who had a connection to dogs that
were licking wounds of injured), but also surgery performed like trepanation
(the opening of the skull) could have been connected to a special belief
(especially if we remember that the head had a special place in Celtic
beliefs).
Additionally it is obvious from various sources that curative powers
were ascribed to some herbs/plants.
BELIEFS CONNECTED TO KINGSHIP
Of old Celtic kingship we know relativly little, but this can be made up
by what we know from the Irish evidence. Obviously, the main belief in
regard to kingship was that the wellbeing of the king reflected itself
in the wellbeing of the land. A king that lost his perfect appearance reflected
this back on the land as well, be he scarred or going that far that he
had lost a limb. A physically "not perfect" person would not be able to
be king, due to this connection. However, this "perfectness" not only was
a matter of physical appearance, but also a matter of mental wellbeing.
As such, a ruler had to be just, as injustice would immediatly fall back
on the country. Additionally he wouldn't be allowed to be greedy, because
if the king would not give his gifts with open hands, so would nature not
wield good crop.
BELIEFS CONNECTED TO GODS
We know little about that, except that diverse gods had diverse functions.
Apart from that, we only can say that some members of the society would
have a closer connection to one god than to most others, like the shoemakers
would (and we know this from one of the Celtiberian inscriptions) tend
more towards the god Lugos (which's equivalent Llew we find as a shoemaker
in the Mabinogi).
Apart from that we can be pretty sure that the "gods" were living in
an "otherworld", similar to the Irish belief, and were in some kind connected
to the "mythical ancestors" of the people, which can be seen in the assignment
of old huge gravemounds as their "palaces", which is true in Ireland (see
only the example of Newgrange), but also in Wales (Pwyll gets to know Rhiannon,
his "otherworld wife", i.e. the godess of sovereignity, while he sits on
Gorsedd Arberth, a megalithic tomb), and we can assume something similar
for the continental Celts (as seen in the Viereckschanze next to the gigantic
gravemound of Hochmichele in Germany). Actually, these "gods" seem to have
lived on this planet in the past, and only after their death in this world
became "gods". In this way it can be seen partly as ancestral worship.
OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES
That offerings and sacrifices were deemed necessary is evident from their
existence alone. What beliefs especially led to these practices (except
the belief that impotant decisions for the future could only be gained
by reading the future in the death of a human sacrifice) we do not know.
BELIEFS CONNECTED TO THE HEAD
As far as we can say the Celts had a special reverence for the head. This
is evident from the ancient sources, where we are told that heads of enemies
were kept as familiy treasures, and that such heads would not be sold for
their weight in gold, as we can find it in archaeology, where we as well
have monuments like the one in Roquepertuse, where a stone portal was adorned
with human skulls as we have often enough separate skulls in the settlements
and amulets made from human skullbones.
An equivalent belief can also be seen in the Tain, where Conchobar
keeps the brain of one of his enemies conserved in Emain Macha, which is
later stolen and used as a slingshot against him, which later causes his
death.
That the head also had a special significance is also evident from
the Mabinogi, where Bran tells his companions to severe his head and take
it with them and after entertaining them for 80 years bury it in London
with the face towards the continent to ward off any enemies (which could
also be seen as an explanation for the human head depictions on artwork).
BTW, this motive later becomes part of the early grail legend.
What belief it exactly was that was connected to the head (especially
the severed head) is unknown, but it has often been speculated that the
head was seen as the part of the body that contained the soul, so it could
well be that the one who had the head of a person also had his soul.
MAGIC
That the Celts believed in some kind of magic is evident. The most obvious
beleif is the one in what in Irish is called "Geis", plural "Gessa", which
could be best traslated as "Prohibition, Taboo". Such gessa could be anything
from not eating with three women to not hunting birds, but also could include
tests in the kind of "it is geis for you to not return here until you have
done this and that".
AFTERLIFE BELIEFS
Much has been already speculated about the afterlife beliefs of the Celts,
but almost all is based upon a short notice in Caesar's De Bello Gallico,
where he states: "The druids teach that the sould is immortal, that it
moves from one to the other after death". This has been interpreted as
a belief in rebirth similar to the Hindu reincarnation belief. However,
it is more likely that what was really meant was a belief in that the soul
lives on in an otherworld.
BELIEFS
CONNECTED TO THE CREATION/END OF THE WORLD
We know almost nothing about the pagan Celtic beliefs about the creation
of the world and its end. It can however be speculated, that the creation
was seen similar as in most other IE religions as the Eartch mother giving
birth to the world.
On the end of the world we equally have almost no information. However,
it can be guessed from statements as famous as "we fear nothing but that
the heavens may fall down on our heads", which we know was said to Alexander
the Great by Celts on the lower Danube as well as it finds itself in the
Tain as the famous last words of Cuchullains (foster)father, that there
existed a belief that at the end of the world the heaven would fall down
on earth.